Proto-Nnadū language

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Proto-Nnadū
Pronunciation /nnədɨː/
Region Seforma
Language family
  • Proto-Nnadū
ProtoNnadū.png
  Proto-Nnadū


Agglutinative with inflectional and isolative features.

Phonology[edit | edit source]

Consonants[edit | edit source]

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Bilabialized palatal Velar Bilabialized velar
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Tenuis plosive p t c cᵝ k kᵝ
Ejective plosive cʼᵝ kʼᵝ
Voiced plosive b d ɟ ɟᵝ g gᵝ
Implosive ɓ ɗ ʄ ʄᵝ ɠ ɠᵝ
Fricative s x xᵝ
Ejective fricative
Lateral approximant l ʎ ʟ
Approximant β̞ j

[p t c cᵝ k kᵝ] /p t c cw k kw/
[pʼ tʼ cʼ cʼᵝ kʼ] kʼᵝ /p̕ t̕ c̕ cw̕ k̕ kw̕/
[b d ɟ ɟᵝ g gᵝ] /b d ġ ġw g gw/
[ɓ ɗ ʄ ʄᵝ ɠ ɠᵝ] /b̕ d̕ ġ̕ ġw̕ g̕ gw̕/
[s sʼ x xᵝ] /s s̕ h hw/
[m n ɲ ŋ] /m n ṇ ŋ/
[l ʎ ʟ] /l ḷ ł/
[j β̝] /j w/

Vowels[edit | edit source]

a - tenuis short vowel
ã - nasalized short vowel
- breathy short vowel
- long vowel

Front Central Back
Short Long Short Long Short Long
Close iː ĩː i̤ː ɨː ɨ̃ː ɨ̤ː uː ũː ṳː
Near-close ɪ̈ ɪ̃̈ ɪ̤̈ ʊ ʊ̃ ʊ̤
Close-mid e ẽ e̤
Mid ə ə̃ ə̤
Open aː ãː a̤ː

[iː ĩː i̤ː] /ii įį ịị/
[ɨː ɨ̃ː ɨ̤ː] /uu ųų ụụ/
[uː ũː ṳː] /oo ǫǫ ọọ/
[ɪ̈ ɪ̃̈ ɪ̤̈] /u ų ụ/
[ʊ ʊ̃ ʊ̤] /o ǫ ọ/
[e ẽ e̤] /i į ị/
[ə ə̃ ə̤] /a ą ạ/
[aː ãː a̤ː] /aa ąą ạạ/

Phonotactics[edit | edit source]

(C)(C)V(R)(C)

Accent[edit | edit source]

Grammaticalized tonal pitch accent. Three stress-tones: rising (I), falling (II), rising-falling (III).

  • I - noun/verb stress (á : aá)
  • II - adjectival/participial stress (à : aà)
  • III - adverbial stress (â : aâ)
  • Nouns, nominal adjectives, non-deverbal adverbs - first syllable stress
  • Verbs, participles (with deverbal adverbs) - last syllable stress

Nouns[edit | edit source]

  • tripartite and three-way patient alignment
  • possessor (preffixal).

Morphemic order:

[Definiteness] + [Case + Possessor + Root + Root extension + (Gender + Number) + Tense]

Gender and number[edit | edit source]

Human Non-Human
Singular -ǫh gwụłǫh man - kųųł wolf
Dual -ǫsa gwụłǫsa two men -ii kųųłii two wolves
Plural - gwụł men -ii kųųłii wolves

Declension[edit | edit source]

Intransitive subject of intransitive clauses - kųųł wolf
Ergative agent of transitive or donor of ditransitive clauses nį- nįkųųł
Accusative object of transitive clauses lạ- lạkųųł
Causal agent of causative clauses sǫ- sǫkųųł by wolf, because of wolf
Instrumental instrument, tool, accompaniament or theme of ditransitive clauses hwaa- hwaakųųł with wolf
Dative goal, location or recipient of ditransitive clauses mu- mukųųł to / for wolf

Definiteness[edit | edit source]

Neutral - ġwąąḷǫh woman
Indefinite ạm ạm ġwąąḷǫh a woman
Definite proper ąs ąs ġwąąḷǫh the woman
Definite distant ooł ooł ġwąąḷǫh yonder woman

Nominal tense[edit | edit source]

Tense is obligatory marked on subject or object of sentence (depending on subject marking).

Non-past - b̕ịịnǫh male man
Past -o b̕ịịnǫho male man (in past action or situation)

Possessor[edit | edit source]

Human Non-Human
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
1. -ąąh (← aanǫh) my -ǫǫsa (← aanǫsa) of both us -aan (← aan) of all us -
2. -ǫkw̕ (← kw̕ǫǫh) thy -kw̕ǫǫs (← kw̕ǫǫsa) of you both -ǫkw̕ (← kw̕ǫ) of you all -ǫcw̕ (← cw̕ǫ) thy -ǫcw̕įį (← cw̕ǫii) of you both -ǫcw̕įį (← cw̕ǫii) of you all
3. -tǫǫh (← tạạǫh) his / her -tǫǫs (← tạạǫsa) of they both -tạạ (← tạạ) of they all -sạạ (← sạạ) it -sịị (← sạạii) of they both -sịị (← sạạii) of they all

Verbs[edit | edit source]

  • pronominal persons before verb.
  • subjective persons cliticized to objectives.

Morphemic order:

[Object + Subject] + [Evidentiality] + [Polarity + Mood + Root + Root extension + Voice + Aspect + (Gender + Number)]

Aspect[edit | edit source]

Imperfective - p̕ǫǫkọ- to speak
Iterative -waaw- p̕ǫǫkọwaaw- to speak many times
Perfective -ạd- p̕ǫǫkọạd- to say

Voice[edit | edit source]

Active - paat̕- to see
Passive -il- paat̕il- to be seen
Medial -ųs̕- paat̕ųs̕- to see self

Mood[edit | edit source]

Indicative - d̕ii- to go
Conditional -ną d̕iiną ... would go
Jussive -lạạ d̕iilạạ ... should go

Polarity[edit | edit source]

Affirmative - k̕ụụ- to stand
Negative ą- ąk̕ụụ- don't to stand

Evidentiality[edit | edit source]

Visual - p̕aap- to beat (and it is visible)
Non-visual nịŋ nịŋ p̕aap- to beat (and it is not seen, but known from other source)
Reported łọọ łọọ p̕aap- to beat (and it is non-confirmed information from another hand)
Assumed hạj hạj pʼaap- to beat (and it is deducted from a traces)

Gender and number[edit | edit source]

Human Non-Human
Singular -ǫh k̕uŋǫh to make (by human) - k̕uŋ to make (by something other)
Dual -ǫsa k̕uŋǫsa to make (by two humans) -ii k̕uŋii to make (by two non-humans)
Plural - k̕uŋ to make (by a humans) -ii k̕uŋii to make (by more than two non-humans)

Non-finite verbs[edit | edit source]

Action noun -nuu paat̕nuu vision, seeing
Participles
Adjectival pa pa paàt̕ seeing
Adverbial pa paât seeing

Adjective and adverb[edit | edit source]

Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]

Positive Comparative Superlative
- pąą stạạ
tkw̕ạ̀ tkw̕ạ̀ pąą tkw̕ạ̀ stạạ
good better best

Adverbs[edit | edit source]

Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]

Positive Comparative Superlative
- pąą stạạ
tkw̕ậ hụ tkw̕ậ hụ pąą tkw̕ậ hụ stạạ
well better best

Numerals[edit | edit source]

Cardinal numerals[edit | edit source]

1. ǫtạạ
2. tkųųs
3. p̕k̕ụụḷi
4. kłaasọ
5. s̕oŋkoo
6. s̕oŋkoo ǫtạạ
7. s̕oŋkoo tkųųs
8. s̕oŋkoo p̕k̕ụụḷi
9. s̕oŋkoo kłaasọ
10. b̕isaal
11. b̕isaal ǫtạạ
12. b̕isaal tkųųs
15. p̕k̕ụụḷi s̕oŋkoo
20. tkųųs b̕isaal
21. tkųųs b̕isaal ǫtạạ
30. tkųųs p̕k̕ụụḷi s̕oŋkoo / p̕k̕ụụḷi b̕isaal
100. b̕isaal b̕isaal

Derived numerals[edit | edit source]

Ordinal Multiplicative Reproductive Distributive Fractional
-jo -s̕iim -muuł -ṇaaŋ -tlįk
1. ǫtạạjo ǫtạạs̕iim ǫtạạmuuł ǫtạạṇaaŋ ǫtạạtlįk
2. tkųųsjo tkųųss̕iim tkųųsmuuł tkųųsṇaaŋ tkųųstlįk
3. p̕k̕ụụḷijo p̕k̕ụụḷis̕iim p̕k̕ụụḷimuuł p̕k̕ụụḷiṇaaŋ p̕k̕ụụḷitlįk
4. kłaasọjo kłaasọs̕iim kłaasọmuuł kłaasọṇaaŋ kłaasọtlįk
5. s̕oŋkoojo s̕oŋkoos̕iim s̕oŋkoomuuł s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ s̕oŋkootlįk
6. s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạjo s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạs̕iim s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạmuuł s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạṇaaŋ s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạtlįk
7. s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsjo s̕oŋkoo-tkųųss̕iim s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsmuuł s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsṇaaŋ s̕oŋkoo-tkųųstlįk
8. s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷijo s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷis̕iim s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷimuuł s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷiṇaaŋ s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷitlįk
9. s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọjo s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọs̕iim s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọmuuł s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọṇaaŋ s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọtlįk
10. b̕isaaljo b̕isaals̕iim b̕isaalmuuł b̕isaalṇaaŋ b̕isaaltlįk
11. b̕isaal-ǫtạạjo b̕isaal-ǫtạạs̕iim b̕isaal-ǫtạạmuuł b̕isaal-ǫtạạṇaaŋ b̕isaal-ǫtạạtlįk
11. b̕isaal-tkųųsjo b̕isaal-tkųųss̕iim b̕isaal-tkųųsmuuł b̕isaal-tkųųsṇaaŋ b̕isaal-tkųųstlįk
15. p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoojo p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoos̕iim p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoomuuł p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkootlįk
20. tkųųs-b̕isaaljo tkųųs-b̕isaals̕iim tkųųs-b̕isaalmuuł tkųųs-b̕isaalṇaaŋ tkųųs-b̕isaaltlįk
21. tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạjo tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạs̕iim tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạmuuł tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạṇaaŋ tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạtlįk
30. tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoojo tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoos̕iim tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoomuuł tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkootlįk
100. b̕isaal-b̕isaaljo b̕isaal-b̕isaals̕iim b̕isaal-b̕isaalmuuł b̕isaal-b̕isaalṇaaŋ b̕isaal-b̕isaaltlįk

Pronouns[edit | edit source]

  • tense marker
  • gender stems with number cliticization.

Personal pronouns[edit | edit source]

Objective personal pronouns are pre-cliticized to subjectives.

Objectives[edit | edit source]

Objectives of the 1.-2. persons have their own stems.

Human Non-Human
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
1. lǫh me lǫǫs us both la us all -
2. jǫh thee jǫǫs two ja we all hwǫh thou hwǫǫs we two hwa we all
3. tạǫǫh he / she tạǫǫs they two tạ they all sạ it sạii they two sạii they all
Subjectives[edit | edit source]
Human Non-Human
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
1. aanǫh I aanǫsa we two aan we all -
2. kw̕ǫǫh thou kw̕ǫǫsa you both kw̕ǫ you all cw̕ǫ thou cw̕ǫii you both cw̕ǫii you all
3. tạạǫh he / she tạạǫsa they two tạạ they all sạạ it sạạii they two sạạii they all

Demonstrative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Definite proper Definite distant Indefinite
Person ąs this ooł that ạm someone
Non-Human ąs this ooł that ạm something
Place ąspaad̕ here oołpaad̕ there ạmpaad̕ somewhere
Source hụnąspaad̕ from here hụnoołpaad̕ from there hụnạmpaad̕ from somewhere
Purpose direction koąspaad̕ to here koołpaad̕ to there, so far koạmpaad̕ to somewhere
Path ąsg̕uła this way oołg̕uła that way ạmg̕uła some way
Time ąscạạł now oołcạạł then
Method ąsḷịị in this way oołḷịị in that way ạmḷịị in some way
Quantity ąsg̕łaa so much
Qualify ḷiiąs like this here ḷiiooł like that ḷiiạm like something
Reason ąspạạ for this reason oołpạạ for that reason ạmpạạ for some reason

Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns[edit | edit source]

Interrogative / Relative Indefinite Unlimited
Person tii who ? which ? tiiha someone tiisa anyone
Non-Human pạạ what ? which ? pạạha something pạạsa anything
Place magwi where ? magwiha somewhere magwisa anywhere
Source hụnmagwi whence ? hụnmagwiha from somewhere hụnmagwisa from anywhere
Purpose direction komagwi whither ? komagwiha to somewhere komagwisa to anywhere
Path ḷịg̕uła which way ? ḷịg̕ułaha via some way ḷịg̕ułasa via any way
Time ḷịcạạł when ? ḷịcạạłha once ḷịcạạłsa ever
Method ḷịị how ? ḷịịha somehow ḷịịsa anyhow
Quantity ḷịg̕łaa how much ? ḷịg̕łaaha somehow much ḷịg̕łaasa anyhow much
Qualify ḷịtii which one ? kaa some kwąą any
Reason kopạạ why ?

Negative, universal and alternative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Negative Universal Alternative
Person ątii nobody maatii every hwịtiisa anyone else
Non-Human ąpạạ nothing maapạạ every, all hwịpạạsa anything else
Place ąmagwi nowhere maamagwi everywhere hwịmagwisa elswhere
Source hụnąmagwi from nowhere hụnmaamagwi from everywhere hụnmagwisa from elswhere
Purpose direction koąmagwi to nowhere komaamagwi to everywhere komagwisa to elswhere
Path ąg̕uła through no way maag̕uła through all ways g̕ułasa which way else
Time ącạạł never maacạạł always cạạłsa when else
Method ąị nohow maaị in all methods ịsa otherwise
Quantity ąg̕łaa nothing maag̕łaa otherwise than so many
Quality ąsụk̕ neuter, indistinct maasụk̕ any sụk̕sa other

Numeral pronouns[edit | edit source]

Interrogative / Relative ḷịg̕łaa how much ?
Indefinite ḷịg̕łaaha write a number
Unlimited ḷịg̕łaasa however many
Negative ąg̕łaa nothing
Alternative maag̕łaa otherwise than so many

Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Reflexive oneself
Reciprocal tkųųc (← tkųųs-cu) each other
Cooperative cilt̕ạ (← cil-t̕ạ) together cooperatively

Prepositions[edit | edit source]

Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals[edit | edit source]

ạs̕ in, inside Instrumental
from inside Accusative
to inside Dative
ṇį on Instrumental
from on Accusative
to on Dative
t̕aab above Instrumental
from above Accusative
to above Dative
d̕ọọm under Instrumental
from under Accusative
to under Dative
kịṇ beside Instrumental
from beside Accusative
to beside Dative
gwǫǫk̕ away Instrumental
from away Accusative
to away Dative
ạs̕tkųųs between Instrumental
from between Accusative
to between Dative
htaa behind Instrumental
from behind Accusative
to behind Dative
wạạ out Instrumental
from out Accusative
to out Dative
hwąąk around Instrumental
from around Accusative
to around Dative
psaaw before, opposite to Instrumental
from before, from opposite to Accusative
to before, to opposite to Dative
ạs̕cạạł during, in time of Instrumental
from time of Accusative
to time of Dative
ġwi after Instrumental
from after Accusative
to after Dative

Other prepositions[edit | edit source]

Companion, attributive object cil with Instrumental
Origin hụn from Accusative
Lack uus without Accusative
Alternative ạspaad̕ instead Accusative
Contrary ạspsaaw against Dative
Resistance ałą despite, though Accusative
Stylization ṇįġ̕is̕ along to, according to Dative

Particles[edit | edit source]

Conjunctions[edit | edit source]

Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative t̕ạ and
Conjunctive hụt̕ also
Disjunctive jạ or
Contrastive, exceptional ḷǫǫ but
Consequentive ŋọọ so
Comparative łuuŋ than
Hypotactical conjunctions
kwį to, for
głoo althought
ŋkiin because
p̕ịị if
knah that, providing

Modifiers[edit | edit source]

Restrictive hwǫt only
Additive ạhcị yet

Polarity particles[edit | edit source]

Affirmative bạ yes
Negative ąą no

Word formation[edit | edit source]

Compounding[edit | edit source]

Derivation[edit | edit source]

Noun[edit | edit source]

Noun to noun[edit | edit source]
Diminutive -ṇii dlạạhwįǫhdlạạhwįṇiiǫh daughter → little daughter
Augmentative -b̕ạạ waaguuwaaguub̕ạạ mountain → grand mountain
Contradiction ą- gwụłǫhągwụłǫh human → non-human
Similarity nsup̕- buŋkąnsupbuŋką tree → pseudo-tree
Half t̕ạạl- sk̕ųųlat̕ạạlsk̕ųųla dog → half-dog
Relational abstract -łoos̕ bạạc̕ǫhbạạc̕łoos̕ brother → brotherhood
Related person -įk gʷọọmagʷọọmaįk cow → cowman
Collective -ạt p̕ạp̕įkp̕ạp̕įkạt bird → birds (a a collective)
Place -mooḷ t̕uk̕t̕uk̕mooḷ fire → campfire
Art / Craft -hmaada koomb̕ṇikoombṇihmaada war → craft of war
Knowledge -jọọġ cḷąąhcḷąąhjọọġ herb → herbalism
Expert -jọọġįk cḷąąhjọọġcḷąąhjọọġįk herbalism → herbalist
Noun to adjective[edit | edit source]
Possessive -tiiŋ gwụłǫhgwụłtiiŋǫh man → human
Originative -hụn ŋgwoomŋgwoomhụn sky → celestial
Similaritive -taat hpoojhpoojtaat cat → felid
Feature -maaṇ ḷiicḷiicmaaṇ hair → hairy
Affiliative -jon mnịịgw̕ǫhmnịịgw̕jonǫh family → familiar
Privative ą-...-tiiŋ g̕iṇcąg̕iṇctiiŋ tooth → toothless

Verb[edit | edit source]

Verb to noun[edit | edit source]
Agentive -ąk sooh-soohąk (to) shoot → shooter
Experiencer, adressee -nuu d̕jaał-- → d̕jaałnuu (to) teach → learner
Result -saah kad̕-- → kad̕saah (to) fall → (a) fall
Instance -ṇi p̕ǫǫkọ-p̕ǫǫkọṇi (to) speak → speech
Instrument -k̕oḷ p̕aap-p̕aapk̕oḷ (to) beat → whip
Place -mooḷ dag-dagmooḷ (to) kill → slaughterhouse
Verb to verb[edit | edit source]

Adjective[edit | edit source]

Adjective to noun[edit | edit source]
Abstract -jaas bọọŋbọọŋjaas strong → strength
Adjective to adjective[edit | edit source]
Tendency -liis tkw̕âtkwâliis good → bland
Intensification -skaa mbaâsmbaâsskaa big → very big
Excess -pi cwį̂tcwį̂tpi small → too small

Syntax[edit | edit source]

Word order[edit | edit source]

  • OSV (Object - Subject - Verb)

Copular verbs[edit | edit source]

Translative nukoh became
Essive nu be
Excessive nugạt̕ cease to be

See Also[edit | edit source]