Proto-Mkxwereh language

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Proto-Mkxwereh
Region Seforma
Language family
  • Proto-Mkxwereh
300px
  Proto-Mkxwereh


Phonology[edit | edit source]

Consonants[edit | edit source]

Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Labialized velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive p b t d k g kʷ gʷ ʔ
Affricate p̪͡f b̪͡v t͡ʃ d͡ʒ k͡x g͡ɣ k͡xʷ g͡ɣʷ
Fricative f v θ̱ ð̱ ʃ ʒ x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ ɦ
Tap ɾ
Glide j
Lateral approximant l ʟ

Spelling[edit | edit source]

p t k kʷ ʔ /p t k kw '/

b d g gʷ /b d g gw/

p̪͡f t͡ʃ k͡x k͡xʷ /pf tš kx kxw/

b̪͡v d͡ʒ g͡ɣ g͡ɣʷ /bv dž gḫ gḫw/

f θ̱ ʃ x xʷ /f θ š x xw/

v ð̱ ʒ ɣ ɣʷ ɦ /v ð ž ḫ ḫw h/

m n /m n/

l ʟ /l ł/

ɾ /r/

j /y/

Vowels[edit | edit source]

Front Central Back
Close ɨ ɨː
Mid e̞ e̞ː ə əː o̞ o̞ː
Open ä äː

Spelling[edit | edit source]

ɨ ɨː /i í/

e̞ e̞ː ə əː o̞ o̞ː /e é ə ə́ o ó/

ä äː /a á/

Phonotactics[edit | edit source]

C(R)V(ː)(n-P)(C)

n-P = non-plosive consonant V = any vowel or syllabic nasal/lateral

Geminates are not allowed in syllabic onset.

Accent[edit | edit source]

Acute accent on second syllable of word, grave on first.

Grammar[edit | edit source]

Nouns[edit | edit source]

  • split-active alignment
  • three-way object
  • two noun class (preffixal): Animate, Inaminate
  • six cases: Absolutive (Inactive), Ergative (Active), Genetive, Dative, Instrumental, Locative
  • number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
  • relational nouns for locational contexts, and postpositions for others (mixed system)

(Noun class + Number) + Root + Root extension + Case

Noun class and number[edit | edit source]

Animate singular š- / šə- šmer man
Animate plural t- / tə- tmer men
Inanimate singular '- / - kxwek stone
Inanimate plural l- / ł- łkxwek stones

Declension[edit | edit source]

Absolutive - šəḫwá jaguar
Ergative -at / -t šəḫwát
Genetive -ja šəḫwája of jaguar
Dative -ri šəḫwári to/for jaguar
Instrumental -nen šəḫwánen by/with jaguar
Locative -lo šəḫwálo (in/on) jaguar

Relational nouns[edit | edit source]

[Relational noun + Locative] + [Noun + Genetive case ending]

Šəbver kəθ kxiθlo vakxəja kəθja sapf.

"The dog is sleeping on top of the mat."

'ałaθ inside in
kxiθ top on
tšə́kxa head above
gḫóm bottom under
tap side beside
bárə distance away
tóntə centre between
klep back behind, after
bve outside out
'ołog wheel around
trap front before, opposite to
yéme time during, in time of

Verbs[edit | edit source]

  • affirmativity (suffixal)
  • four tenses (suffixal): Remote past, Prehodiernal past, Hodiernal past, Non-past
  • two aspects (preffixal): Completive, Incompletive
  • four moods (suffixal): Declarative, Energetic, Conditional, Subjunctive
  • Active, Passive vs Causative (constructional passive vs infixal causative)
  • three subjective persons (preffixal), active and inactive forms, no clusivity
  • evidentiality (cliticized): from first hand, from second hand, from other hands

Subject + Aspect + (Root + Causativity) + Root extension + Tense + Mood + Affirmativity + Evidentiality

Tense[edit | edit source]

Remote past -ə́ḫw / -ḫw 'etə́ḫw to go (action in far past, but no later as week or two weeks ago)
Prehodiernal past -l / -ł 'etl to go (action accomplished before today, but no further as week or two weeks ago)
Hodiernal past -iθ / -θ 'etiθ to go (action accomplished earlier today)
Non-past - 'et to go (action in present or future time)

Aspect[edit | edit source]

Incompletive - θlál to think (action is incompleted)
Completive pe- / pe'- peθlál to think (action is completed)

Voice[edit | edit source]

Direct Causative
Active - gwéð to see -nə- gwénəð to show
Passive [copular verb + passive participle] 'ar gwéðaf to be seen - 'ar gwénəðaf to be shown

Moods[edit | edit source]

Declarative - kwáyl to speak
Energetic -to kwáylto surely to speak
Conditional -lá- kwáyllá would speak
Subjunctive -šə́ kwáylšə́ may speak

Polarity[edit | edit source]

Affirmative - ket- to stand
Negative -ma- ketam- don't to stand

Evidentiality[edit | edit source]

From first hand -kí 'akwakí to drink (and it is known from direct witness)
From second hand -yo 'akwayo to drink (and it is known from indirect source)
From other hands -noh 'akwanoh to drink (and it is known from widespread rumor)

Person[edit | edit source]

Inactive[edit | edit source]
Singular Plural
1. -am / -'am hotšam I lie, I am situated -ant / -'ant hotšant we lie, we are situated
2. -eθ / -'eθ hotšeθ thou lie, thu art situated -eθt hotšeθt you lie, you are situated
3. - hotš he / she / it lie, I am situated -í / -'í hotše they lie, they are situated
Active[edit | edit source]
Singular Plural
1. -oy / -'oy haboy I am working -oyt haboyt we are working
2. -ił / -'ił habił thou art working -iłt / -'iłt habiłt you are working
3. -əh / -'əh habəh he / she / it are working -əht / -'əht habəht they are working

Non-finite verbs[edit | edit source]

Infinitives[edit | edit source]
Action noun -lon gwéðlon vision, seeing
Infinitive -la gwéðla to see
Supinum -lik gwéðlik to/for seeing
Participles[edit | edit source]
Adjectivals[edit | edit source]
Active -or / -'or gwéðor seeing
Passive -af / -'af gwéðaf seen
Adverbials[edit | edit source]
Active -or-e / -'or-e gwéðore seeing
Passive -af-e / -'af-e gwéðafe seen

Adjectives[edit | edit source]

Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]

Positive Comparative Superlative
- féx
'išah yó 'išah féx 'išah
good better best

Adverbs[edit | edit source]

Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]

Positive Comparative Superlative
- féx
'išahe yó 'išahe féx 'išahe
well better best

Numerals[edit | edit source]

Cardinal numerals[edit | edit source]

1. moyto
2. baryá
3. fobyeh
4. 'inepe
5. metlé
6. džorgḫo
7. tšołor
8. θigol
9. kinsár
10. tárom
11. tárom moyto
12. tárom baryá
20. baryá tárom
21. baryá tárom moyto
30 fobyeh tárom
100. tartár

Derived numerals[edit | edit source]

Ordinal Multiplicative Reproductive Distributive
kxaya kotša fey
1. moyto yá moyto kxaya moyto kotša moyto fey

Pronouns[edit | edit source]

  • active and inactive forms
  • no clusivity

Personal pronouns[edit | edit source]

Inactives[edit | edit source]
Animate Inaminate
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1. šná I / me tə́n we / us
2. šəyé thou / thee təyé you thou / thee lyé you
3. šəθə́ he / him / she / her təθə́ they / them θə́ it lθé they / them
Actives[edit | edit source]
Singular Plural
1. šoy I toy we
2. šił thou tił you
3. šəh he / she təh they

Possessive pronouns[edit | edit source]

Animate Inaminate
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1. šnár I / me tə́nr we / us
2. šəyér thou / thee təyér you yér thou / thee lyér you
3. šəθə́r he / him / she / her təθə́r they / them θə́r it lθér they / them

Demonstrative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Proper Distant Indefinite
Person / Object kəθ this dəθ that xəθ someone / something there
Place kətal here dətal there xətal somewhere there
Source kətalat from here dətalat from there xətalat from somewhere there
Purpose direction kətalto to here dətalto to there, so far xətalto to somewhere there
Path kəstak this way dəstak that way xəstak some way
Time kəyém now dəyém then
Method kəmand in this way dəmand in that way xəmand in some way
Quantity kəfla so much
Qualify kətrenθ like this here dətrenθ like that xətrenθ like something there
Reason kəšerk for this reason dəšerk for that reason xəšerk for some reason

Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns[edit | edit source]

Interrogative / Relative Indefinite Unlimited
Person / Object twa who ? which ? twali someone θeθtwali anyone
Place twatal where ? twatalli somewhere θeθtwatali anywhere
Source twatalat whence ? twatalli'at from somewhere θeθtwatalli'at from anywhere
Purpose direction twatalto whither ? twatallito to somewhere θeθtwatallito to anywhere
Path twastak which way ? twastakli via some way θeθtwastakli via any way
Time twayém when ? twayémli once θeθtwayémli ever
Method twamand how ? twamandli somehow θeθtwamandli anyhow
Quantity twafla how much ? twaflali somehow much θeθtwaflali anyhow much
Quality twatrenθ which one ? twatrenθli some θeθtwatrenθli any
Reason twašerk why ?

Negative, universal and alternative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Negative Universal Alternative
Person / Object matwa nobody, nothing xwášitwa every tenetwa anyone else
Place matal nowhere xwášital everywhere tenetal elswhere
Source matalat from nowhere xwášitalat from everywhere tenetalat from elswhere
Purpose direction matalto to nowhere xwášitalto to everywhere tenetalto to elswhere
Path mastak through no way xwášistak through all ways tenestak which way else
Time mayém never xwášiyém always teneyém when else
Method mamand nohow xwášimand in all methods tenemand otherwise
Quantity mafla nothing tenefla otherwise than so many
Quality matrenθ neuter, indistinct xwášitrenθ any tenetrenθ other

Numeral pronouns[edit | edit source]

Interrogative / Relative twafla how much ?
Indefinite twaflali write a number
Unlimited θeθtwaflali however many
Negative mafla nothing
Alternative tenefla otherwise than so many

Reflexive-reciprocal and cooperative pronouns[edit | edit source]

Reflexive / Reciprocal θen oneself / each other
Cooperative θenem together cooperatively

Postpositions[edit | edit source]

Companion, attributive object 'em with Instrumental
Originative direction 'at from Genetive
Destinative direction, purpose, goal to to Genetive
Lack ma'em without Genetive
Alternative 'áθ instead Genetive
Contrary pfare against Dative
Resistance tama despite, though Dative
Stylization łándə along to, according to Dative
Benefactive žot for, destined to Dative
Essive xaš as, at character of Absolutive

Particles[edit | edit source]

Conjunctions[edit | edit source]

Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative že and
Conjunctive žere also
Disjunctive vah or
Contrastive, exceptional atša but
Consequentive ḫwa so
Comparative lo than
Hypotactical conjunctions
žežot to, for
džate althought
šerkem because
'arže if
kwó that, providing

Modifiers[edit | edit source]

Restrictive moyto'e only
Additive 'arkwó yet

Polarity particles[edit | edit source]

Affirmative kxay yes
Negative no

Word formation[edit | edit source]

Compounding[edit | edit source]

Derivation[edit | edit source]

Noun[edit | edit source]

Noun to noun[edit | edit source]
Diminutive -šik šəkwankšəkwankšik daughter → little daughter
Augmentative -vá móngmóngvá mountain → grand mountain
Contradiction ma- šmermašmer human → non-human
Similarity -trenθ θərpfəθərpfətrenθ tree → pseudo-tree
Half -ðáł šəbveršəbverðáł dog → half-dog
Relational abstract -yóh šxwérešxwéreyóh brother → brotherhood
Related person -ori škapləškaplori cow → cowman
Collective -ad-ah hapfahapfa'adah bird → birds (a a collective)
Place -tal-ah toktoktalah fire → campfire
Art / Craft -ori-ah ḫwargḫaḫwargḫa'ori'ah war → craft of war
Knowledge -yong-ah hiłgihiłgiyongah herb → herbalism
Expert -ori hiłgihiłgi'ori herb → herbalist
Noun to adjective[edit | edit source]
Possessive -tíθ šmeršmertíθ man → human
Originative -at wángə́wángə́'at sky → celestial
Similaritive -trentí (← trenθ-tí) šmərgḫašmərgḫatrenθí cat → felid
Feature -tíθ lyáfalyáfatíθ hair → hairy
Affiliative -em-tíθ šnígwəšnígwemtíθ family → familiar
Privative ma-...-tíθ gnitšmagnitštíθ tooth → toothless

Verb[edit | edit source]

Verb to noun[edit | edit source]
Agentive -ori šitš-ššitšori (to) shoot → shooter
Experiencer, adressee -ori-af fagw-fagwori'af (to) teach → learner
Result -vat ked-kedvat (to) fall → (a) fall
Instance -yóh kwáyl-kwáylyóh (to) speak → speech
Instrument -nin bvat-bvatnin (to) beat → whip
Place -tal-ah brík-bríktalah (to) kill → slaughterhouse
Verb to verb[edit | edit source]

Adjective[edit | edit source]

Adjective to noun[edit | edit source]
Abstract -yóh džagdžagyóh strong → strength
Adjective to adjective[edit | edit source]
Tendency -tin 'išah → 'išahtin good → bland
Intensification -mag gwádgwádmag big → very big
Excess -vok tšílitšilivok small → too small

Syntax[edit | edit source]

Word order[edit | edit source]

  • SOV (Subject - Object - Verb)
  • head-initial

Copular verbs[edit | edit source]

Translative pfeh became
Essive 'ar be

See Also[edit | edit source]