Proto-Mkxwereh language
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Proto-Mkxwereh | |
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Region | Seforma |
Language family |
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300px Proto-Mkxwereh |
Phonology[edit | edit source]
Consonants[edit | edit source]
Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labialized velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ||||||
Plosive | p b | t d | k g | kʷ gʷ | ʔ | |||
Affricate | p̪͡f b̪͡v | t͡ʃ d͡ʒ | k͡x g͡ɣ | k͡xʷ g͡ɣʷ | ||||
Fricative | f v | θ̱ ð̱ | ʃ ʒ | x ɣ | xʷ ɣʷ | ɦ | ||
Tap | ɾ | |||||||
Glide | j | |||||||
Lateral approximant | l | ʟ |
Spelling[edit | edit source]
p t k kʷ ʔ /p t k kw '/
b d g gʷ /b d g gw/
p̪͡f t͡ʃ k͡x k͡xʷ /pf tš kx kxw/
b̪͡v d͡ʒ g͡ɣ g͡ɣʷ /bv dž gḫ gḫw/
f θ̱ ʃ x xʷ /f θ š x xw/
v ð̱ ʒ ɣ ɣʷ ɦ /v ð ž ḫ ḫw h/
m n /m n/
l ʟ /l ł/
ɾ /r/
j /y/
Vowels[edit | edit source]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | ɨ ɨː | ||
Mid | e̞ e̞ː | ə əː | o̞ o̞ː |
Open | ä äː |
Spelling[edit | edit source]
ɨ ɨː /i í/
e̞ e̞ː ə əː o̞ o̞ː /e é ə ə́ o ó/
ä äː /a á/
Phonotactics[edit | edit source]
C(R)V(ː)(n-P)(C)
n-P = non-plosive consonant V = any vowel or syllabic nasal/lateral
Geminates are not allowed in syllabic onset.
Accent[edit | edit source]
Acute accent on second syllable of word, grave on first.
Grammar[edit | edit source]
Nouns[edit | edit source]
- split-active alignment
- three-way object
- two noun class (preffixal): Animate, Inaminate
- six cases: Absolutive (Inactive), Ergative (Active), Genetive, Dative, Instrumental, Locative
- number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
- relational nouns for locational contexts, and postpositions for others (mixed system)
(Noun class + Number) + Root + Root extension + Case
Noun class and number[edit | edit source]
Animate singular | š- / šə- | šmer | man |
---|---|---|---|
Animate plural | t- / tə- | tmer | men |
Inanimate singular | '- / - | kxwek | stone |
Inanimate plural | l- / ł- | łkxwek | stones |
Declension[edit | edit source]
Absolutive | - | šəḫwá | jaguar |
---|---|---|---|
Ergative | -at / -t | šəḫwát | |
Genetive | -ja | šəḫwája | of jaguar |
Dative | -ri | šəḫwári | to/for jaguar |
Instrumental | -nen | šəḫwánen | by/with jaguar |
Locative | -lo | šəḫwálo | (in/on) jaguar |
Relational nouns[edit | edit source]
[Relational noun + Locative] + [Noun + Genetive case ending]
Šəbver kəθ kxiθlo vakxəja kəθja sapf.
"The dog is sleeping on top of the mat."
'ałaθ | inside | in |
---|---|---|
kxiθ | top | on |
tšə́kxa | head | above |
gḫóm | bottom | under |
tap | side | beside |
bárə | distance | away |
tóntə | centre | between |
klep | back | behind, after |
bve | outside | out |
'ołog | wheel | around |
trap | front | before, opposite to |
yéme | time | during, in time of |
Verbs[edit | edit source]
- affirmativity (suffixal)
- four tenses (suffixal): Remote past, Prehodiernal past, Hodiernal past, Non-past
- two aspects (preffixal): Completive, Incompletive
- four moods (suffixal): Declarative, Energetic, Conditional, Subjunctive
- Active, Passive vs Causative (constructional passive vs infixal causative)
- three subjective persons (preffixal), active and inactive forms, no clusivity
- evidentiality (cliticized): from first hand, from second hand, from other hands
Subject + Aspect + (Root + Causativity) + Root extension + Tense + Mood + Affirmativity + Evidentiality
Tense[edit | edit source]
Remote past | -ə́ḫw / -ḫw | 'etə́ḫw | to go (action in far past, but no later as week or two weeks ago) |
---|---|---|---|
Prehodiernal past | -l / -ł | 'etl | to go (action accomplished before today, but no further as week or two weeks ago) |
Hodiernal past | -iθ / -θ | 'etiθ | to go (action accomplished earlier today) |
Non-past | - | 'et | to go (action in present or future time) |
Aspect[edit | edit source]
Incompletive | - | θlál | to think (action is incompleted) |
---|---|---|---|
Completive | pe- / pe'- | peθlál | to think (action is completed) |
Voice[edit | edit source]
Direct | Causative | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Active | - | gwéð | to see | -nə- | gwénəð | to show |
Passive | [copular verb + passive participle] | 'ar gwéðaf | to be seen | - | 'ar gwénəðaf | to be shown |
Moods[edit | edit source]
Declarative | - | kwáyl | to speak |
---|---|---|---|
Energetic | -to | kwáylto | surely to speak |
Conditional | -lá- | kwáyllá | would speak |
Subjunctive | -šə́ | kwáylšə́ | may speak |
Polarity[edit | edit source]
Affirmative | - | ket- | to stand |
---|---|---|---|
Negative | -ma- | ketam- | don't to stand |
Evidentiality[edit | edit source]
From first hand | -kí | 'akwakí | to drink (and it is known from direct witness) |
---|---|---|---|
From second hand | -yo | 'akwayo | to drink (and it is known from indirect source) |
From other hands | -noh | 'akwanoh | to drink (and it is known from widespread rumor) |
Person[edit | edit source]
Inactive[edit | edit source]
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | -am / -'am | hotšam | I lie, I am situated | -ant / -'ant | hotšant | we lie, we are situated |
2. | -eθ / -'eθ | hotšeθ | thou lie, thu art situated | -eθt | hotšeθt | you lie, you are situated |
3. | - | hotš | he / she / it lie, I am situated | -í / -'í | hotše | they lie, they are situated |
Active[edit | edit source]
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | -oy / -'oy | haboy | I am working | -oyt | haboyt | we are working |
2. | -ił / -'ił | habił | thou art working | -iłt / -'iłt | habiłt | you are working |
3. | -əh / -'əh | habəh | he / she / it are working | -əht / -'əht | habəht | they are working |
Non-finite verbs[edit | edit source]
Infinitives[edit | edit source]
Action noun | -lon | gwéðlon | vision, seeing |
---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | -la | gwéðla | to see |
Supinum | -lik | gwéðlik | to/for seeing |
Participles[edit | edit source]
Adjectivals[edit | edit source]
Active | -or / -'or | gwéðor | seeing |
---|---|---|---|
Passive | -af / -'af | gwéðaf | seen |
Adverbials[edit | edit source]
Active | -or-e / -'or-e | gwéðore | seeing |
---|---|---|---|
Passive | -af-e / -'af-e | gwéðafe | seen |
Adjectives[edit | edit source]
Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]
Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|
- | yó | féx |
'išah | yó 'išah | féx 'išah |
good | better | best |
Adverbs[edit | edit source]
Degrees of comparison[edit | edit source]
Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
---|---|---|
- | yó | féx |
'išahe | yó 'išahe | féx 'išahe |
well | better | best |
Numerals[edit | edit source]
Cardinal numerals[edit | edit source]
1. | moyto |
---|---|
2. | baryá |
3. | fobyeh |
4. | 'inepe |
5. | metlé |
6. | džorgḫo |
7. | tšołor |
8. | θigol |
9. | kinsár |
10. | tárom |
11. | tárom moyto |
12. | tárom baryá |
20. | baryá tárom |
21. | baryá tárom moyto |
30 | fobyeh tárom |
100. | tartár |
Derived numerals[edit | edit source]
Ordinal | Multiplicative | Reproductive | Distributive | |
---|---|---|---|---|
yá | kxaya | kotša | fey | |
1. | moyto yá | moyto kxaya | moyto kotša | moyto fey |
Pronouns[edit | edit source]
- active and inactive forms
- no clusivity
Personal pronouns[edit | edit source]
Inactives[edit | edit source]
Animate | Inaminate | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
1. | šná | I / me | tə́n | we / us | ||||
2. | šəyé | thou / thee | təyé | you | yé | thou / thee | lyé | you |
3. | šəθə́ | he / him / she / her | təθə́ | they / them | θə́ | it | lθé | they / them |
Actives[edit | edit source]
Singular | Plural | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | šoy | I | toy | we |
2. | šił | thou | tił | you |
3. | šəh | he / she | təh | they |
Possessive pronouns[edit | edit source]
Animate | Inaminate | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||
1. | šnár | I / me | tə́nr | we / us | ||||
2. | šəyér | thou / thee | təyér | you | yér | thou / thee | lyér | you |
3. | šəθə́r | he / him / she / her | təθə́r | they / them | θə́r | it | lθér | they / them |
Demonstrative pronouns[edit | edit source]
Proper | Distant | Indefinite | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person / Object | kəθ | this | dəθ | that | xəθ | someone / something there |
Place | kətal | here | dətal | there | xətal | somewhere there |
Source | kətalat | from here | dətalat | from there | xətalat | from somewhere there |
Purpose direction | kətalto | to here | dətalto | to there, so far | xətalto | to somewhere there |
Path | kəstak | this way | dəstak | that way | xəstak | some way |
Time | kəyém | now | dəyém | then | ||
Method | kəmand | in this way | dəmand | in that way | xəmand | in some way |
Quantity | kəfla | so much | ||||
Qualify | kətrenθ | like this here | dətrenθ | like that | xətrenθ | like something there |
Reason | kəšerk | for this reason | dəšerk | for that reason | xəšerk | for some reason |
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns[edit | edit source]
Interrogative / Relative | Indefinite | Unlimited | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person / Object | twa | who ? which ? | twali | someone | θeθtwali | anyone |
Place | twatal | where ? | twatalli | somewhere | θeθtwatali | anywhere |
Source | twatalat | whence ? | twatalli'at | from somewhere | θeθtwatalli'at | from anywhere |
Purpose direction | twatalto | whither ? | twatallito | to somewhere | θeθtwatallito | to anywhere |
Path | twastak | which way ? | twastakli | via some way | θeθtwastakli | via any way |
Time | twayém | when ? | twayémli | once | θeθtwayémli | ever |
Method | twamand | how ? | twamandli | somehow | θeθtwamandli | anyhow |
Quantity | twafla | how much ? | twaflali | somehow much | θeθtwaflali | anyhow much |
Quality | twatrenθ | which one ? | twatrenθli | some | θeθtwatrenθli | any |
Reason | twašerk | why ? |
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns[edit | edit source]
Negative | Universal | Alternative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person / Object | matwa | nobody, nothing | xwášitwa | every | tenetwa | anyone else |
Place | matal | nowhere | xwášital | everywhere | tenetal | elswhere |
Source | matalat | from nowhere | xwášitalat | from everywhere | tenetalat | from elswhere |
Purpose direction | matalto | to nowhere | xwášitalto | to everywhere | tenetalto | to elswhere |
Path | mastak | through no way | xwášistak | through all ways | tenestak | which way else |
Time | mayém | never | xwášiyém | always | teneyém | when else |
Method | mamand | nohow | xwášimand | in all methods | tenemand | otherwise |
Quantity | mafla | nothing | tenefla | otherwise than so many | ||
Quality | matrenθ | neuter, indistinct | xwášitrenθ | any | tenetrenθ | other |
Numeral pronouns[edit | edit source]
Interrogative / Relative | twafla | how much ? |
---|---|---|
Indefinite | twaflali | write a number |
Unlimited | θeθtwaflali | however many |
Negative | mafla | nothing |
Alternative | tenefla | otherwise than so many |
Reflexive-reciprocal and cooperative pronouns[edit | edit source]
Reflexive / Reciprocal | θen | oneself / each other |
---|---|---|
Cooperative | θenem | together cooperatively |
Postpositions[edit | edit source]
Companion, attributive object | 'em | with | Instrumental |
---|---|---|---|
Originative direction | 'at | from | Genetive |
Destinative direction, purpose, goal | to | to | Genetive |
Lack | ma'em | without | Genetive |
Alternative | 'áθ | instead | Genetive |
Contrary | pfare | against | Dative |
Resistance | tama | despite, though | Dative |
Stylization | łándə | along to, according to | Dative |
Benefactive | žot | for, destined to | Dative |
Essive | xaš | as, at character of | Absolutive |
Particles[edit | edit source]
Conjunctions[edit | edit source]
Paratactical conjunctions | ||
---|---|---|
Copulative | že | and |
Conjunctive | žere | also |
Disjunctive | vah | or |
Contrastive, exceptional | atša | but |
Consequentive | ḫwa | so |
Comparative | lo | than |
Hypotactical conjunctions | ||
žežot | to, for | |
džate | althought | |
šerkem | because | |
'arže | if | |
kwó | that, providing |
Modifiers[edit | edit source]
Restrictive | moyto'e | only |
---|---|---|
Additive | 'arkwó | yet |
Polarity particles[edit | edit source]
Affirmative | kxay | yes |
---|---|---|
Negative | má | no |
Word formation[edit | edit source]
Compounding[edit | edit source]
Derivation[edit | edit source]
Noun[edit | edit source]
Noun to noun[edit | edit source]
Diminutive | -šik | šəkwank → šəkwankšik | daughter → little daughter |
---|---|---|---|
Augmentative | -vá | móng → móngvá | mountain → grand mountain |
Contradiction | ma- | šmer → mašmer | human → non-human |
Similarity | -trenθ | θərpfə → θərpfətrenθ | tree → pseudo-tree |
Half | -ðáł | šəbver → šəbverðáł | dog → half-dog |
Relational abstract | -yóh | šxwére → šxwéreyóh | brother → brotherhood |
Related person | -ori | škaplə → škaplori | cow → cowman |
Collective | -ad-ah | hapfa → hapfa'adah | bird → birds (a a collective) |
Place | -tal-ah | tok → toktalah | fire → campfire |
Art / Craft | -ori-ah | ḫwargḫa → ḫwargḫa'ori'ah | war → craft of war |
Knowledge | -yong-ah | hiłgi → hiłgiyongah | herb → herbalism |
Expert | -ori | hiłgi → hiłgi'ori | herb → herbalist |
Noun to adjective[edit | edit source]
Possessive | -tíθ | šmer → šmertíθ | man → human |
---|---|---|---|
Originative | -at | wángə́ → wángə́'at | sky → celestial |
Similaritive | -trentí (← trenθ-tí) | šmərgḫa → šmərgḫatrenθí | cat → felid |
Feature | -tíθ | lyáfa → lyáfatíθ | hair → hairy |
Affiliative | -em-tíθ | šnígwə → šnígwemtíθ | family → familiar |
Privative | ma-...-tíθ | gnitš → magnitštíθ | tooth → toothless |
Verb[edit | edit source]
Verb to noun[edit | edit source]
Agentive | -ori | šitš- → ššitšori | (to) shoot → shooter |
---|---|---|---|
Experiencer, adressee | -ori-af | fagw- → fagwori'af | (to) teach → learner |
Result | -vat | ked- → kedvat | (to) fall → (a) fall |
Instance | -yóh | kwáyl- → kwáylyóh | (to) speak → speech |
Instrument | -nin | bvat- → bvatnin | (to) beat → whip |
Place | -tal-ah | brík- → bríktalah | (to) kill → slaughterhouse |
Verb to verb[edit | edit source]
Adjective[edit | edit source]
Adjective to noun[edit | edit source]
Abstract | -yóh | džag → džagyóh | strong → strength |
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Adjective to adjective[edit | edit source]
Tendency | -tin | 'išah → 'išahtin | good → bland |
---|---|---|---|
Intensification | -mag | gwád → gwádmag | big → very big |
Excess | -vok | tšíli → tšilivok | small → too small |
Syntax[edit | edit source]
Word order[edit | edit source]
- SOV (Subject - Object - Verb)
- head-initial
Copular verbs[edit | edit source]
Translative | pfeh | became |
---|---|---|
Essive | 'ar | be |
See Also[edit | edit source]
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